The island of El Hierro is the smallest and youngest island in the Canary archipelago. It has been recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve since 2000, and it has a population of approximately 10,000 inhabitants. The aim of this study was to determine the amount of CO₂ emissions absorbed by the forest stands of the island of El Hierro and compare it to the emissions generated by the population. It is noteworthy that there is a hydro-wind energy production project on the island that has significantly minimized the emissions linked to energy production. In short, El Hierro's forest stands are capable of capturing 46,785 tons of CO₂ annually, while emissions associated with electricity production and emissions linked to road mobility are below the island's carbon sequestration capacity since the Gorona del Viento renewable energy project was built. By working on investment in renewable energies to produce energy and changing mobility with the use of electric vehicles, a small island like El Hierro can adapt to ecological transition by the year 2040. This is a goal set by the government to drastically reduce emissions in the Canary Islands.

1 INTRODUCTION

As a consequence of anthropogenic activities and climate change, the concentration of greenhouse gases such as atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide and methane in the atmosphere has escalated and caused a series of environmental problems (Friedlingstein et al., 2022; Tigges et al., 2017). Human energy consumption, industrial activities, land use/cover changes including deforestation (Cao & Yuan, 2019) and the burning of fossil fuels (mainly natural gas and coal) (Muradov, 2017) have given rise to major CO₂ emissions. For the year 2020, the level of global CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere reached 412.45 ± 0.1 ppm (Friedlingstein et al., 2022), which represents a 31% increase since 1958 (Wang & Song, 2020). Furthermore, this recorded increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration up to the present indicates that climate change has become an accelerated process (Wang & Huang, 2020; Wang & Song, 2020). If no action is taken to reduce CO₂ emissions, while maintaining current fossil fuel utilization, atmospheric CO₂ is expected to reach 550 ppm by 2050 and nearly 940 ppm by approximately the end of the century (Smith & Myers, 2018). If this occurs, the impact on the global climate is predicted to be catastrophic (Wang & Song, 2020). Therefore, it is crucial to increase and manage the carbon (C) sink capacity of terrestrial ecosystems, which could effectively help to mitigate the increased CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere (Pragasan, 2022; Wu et al., 2019).

Forests are an important terrestrial ecosystem and a major global reservoir of CO₂, and they play an important role in climate change mitigation and carbon cycle regulation (Daigneault & Favero, 2021; Wang & Huang, 2020). On larger scales, forests could mitigate atmospheric CO₂ levels by acting as carbon sinks during vegetation succession and as sources when vegetation is destroyed or degraded by human or natural disturbances. Effective forest management transforms them into carbon sinks rather than sources, offering the potential to mitigate anthropogenic impacts associated with CO₂ (Daigneault & Favero, 2021; Förster et al., 2021; Pugh et al., 2019).

Forests cover about 31% of the world's land area, contain 80% of the earth's biomass, account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the terrestrial biosphere (Bonan, 2008) and hold the largest proportion of carbon stocks on land: one-third of this carbon is stored in biomass and two-thirds of it in soil (Schmidt et al., 2011). Therefore, estimation of forest ecosystem carbon storage has drawn substantial attention in the field of global climate change.

As forests are one of the major carbon sinks in the global ecosystem, the biomass is a primary variable related to the amount of carbon flowing in the carbon cycle (Mohd Zaki & Abd Latif, 2017; Réjou-Méchain et al., 2014; Tigges et al., 2017). Therefore, it is essential to meticulously and consistently monitor forest biomass to understand the impact of climate change on forest carbon sinks and to implement policies to mitigate the influences of climate change on forest ecosystems (Li et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2021).

One way to measure carbon storage in forest ecosystems is to calculate the product of forest biomass and carbon content. Present-day knowledge about the contributions of forests to global carbon cycle comes primarily from field-based inventory data (Dalponte & Coomes, 2016). However, the integration of remote sensing data into such activities provides an opportunity to reduce financial costs involved in establishing inventory by reducing the need for field-based sampling (Dalponte & Coomes, 2016; Stephens et al., 2012).

In this study, we used field data from the 4th Spanish Forest Inventory, carried out in 2017, and biomass models to quantify the carbon stock estimates in the forest stands of El Hierro Island (Canary Islands, Spain). Furthermore, the main objective of this study was to find out how much greenhouse gas emissions are sequestered by the wooded forest area of the island of El Hierro, largely composed of Fayal-brezal (40.1% of the forest area on El Hierro) and Pinus canariensis woodlands (36.8%), in order to determine whether El Hierro is CO₂ neutral, considering annual energy and vehicle emissions and forest carbon sequestration.

1.1 Study area

The study area corresponds to wooded areas on El Hierro Island, the youngest and farthest southwestern island of Spain's Canary Archipelago. The island is geographically situated in the Atlantic Ocean, off the west coast of the Sahara Desert, Africa between 27°38′-27°50′ N and 17°53′ − 18°09′ (WGS 1984 UTM Zone 28 N). Currently, the area is predominantly forested. According to the Forest Map of Spain (MFE) (Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico, 2018), the forest area of El Hierro is mainly dominated by Myrica faya and Erica arborea (Fayal-brezal), and P. canariensis, covering approximately 66 km² or 25% of the total island territory (268 km²). It is represented as a mountainous and undulating region, with an elevation range between 186 and 1482 m above sea level and a mean elevation of 1075 m (Figure 1).

Details are in the caption following the image — **FIGURE 1**
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The study area of El Hierro island, Canary Archipelago, Spain. A study area of 28 km² is covered with forest (represented in green). The orange points correspond to the location of the IFN4 plots selected for the study.

The island of El Hierro has a pioneering hydro-wind production project called Gorona del Viento, which aims to generate renewable energy on the island and cover the entire energy demand in a sustainable way in the coming years (Novykh et al., 2019). Gorona del Viento is a facility consisting of two ponds located at different heights where, through a hydraulic jump, energy is generated. Wind energy is used to carry the water from the lower basin to the upper basin.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The carbon stock stored by the forests of El Hierro was calculated from datasets of the Fourth Spanish National Forest Inventory (SFNI4) carried out in 2017 in the Canary Islands (MITECO, 2020). Field data were obtained from the network of plots at the intersections of a 1 × 1 km Universal Transversal de Mercator (UTM) grid in the forest areas from a survey carried out in 2017. In order to estimate the carbon stock in the tree layer for a forested area on El Hierro of over 6661 ha, 129 SFNI4 plots were used. Plots consisted of four concentric fixed areas, where trees were measured depending on their size (for more details, see Alberdi et al., 2017). Carbon estimation was carried out through calculation of the dry weight of the above- and below-ground tree biomass, by means of available species-specific biomass models (Balboa-Murias et al., 2006; Montero et al., 2005; Pérez-Cruzado et al., 2011; Ruiz-Peinado et al., 2011, 2012), field data on each SNFI4 plots (species composition, diameter at the breast height and total height) and specific woody carbon content (Ibáñez et al., 2002). To convert carbon estimations to CO₂ weight, a factor of 44/12 (molecular weight of CO₂ and atomic weight of carbon) was used. Table 1 is showing the mean characteristics of the forest formations on the island of El Hierro.

TABLE 1. Stand characteristics, C stocks and C increments for the main forest areas of the island of El Hierro.

Forest formations	Area (ha)	Tree density (tree ha⁻¹)	Basal area (m² ha⁻¹)	C stock in 2017 (Mg C ha⁻¹)	C increment (Mg C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹)
Fayal-brezal (Myrica faya- Erica arborea)	2669.5	1398	30.7	94.6	1.55
Pinus canariensis pinewoods	2454.9	418	26.9	85.4	2.06
Pinus radiata pinewoods	334.2	673	27.8	43.0	3.51
Mixed forests of native conifer species	279.5	453	7.2	18.6	0.88
Juniperus turbinata woodlands	187.0	103	3.7	6.6	0.23
Mixed forests of non-native conifer and native broadleaved species	186.4	59	8.6	12.4	0.78
Mixed forests of native and non-native conifer forests	137.8	851	22.1	56.0	2.67
Native and non-native broadleaved species	123.1	448	17.6	74.1	4.63
Other productive woodlands	77.2	1433	53.6	305.3	18.22
Other macaronesian native species	59.3	95	1.7	3.5	0.01
Juniperus phoenicea woodlands	35.8	54	9.5	18.6	0.18

Carbon sequestration potential (annual carbon increment) was estimated using species-specific annual diameter increments for the Canary Islands species that were available from the SFNI (MITECO, 2020). These diameter increments were applied to the field data of SNFI4 (tree data) and biomass was calculated using the species-specific models developed by Montero et al. (2005), as these models depend only on diameter at breast height. In this way, the differences between the estimates from the model updated with diameter increments and those without updates were the annual biomass increment (annual biomass increment = fmodel(dbh + dbh annual increment) − fmodel(dbh)).

In order to calculate the main CO₂ emissions on the island of El Hierro, the consumption of fossil fuels used for electricity generation on the island has been considered. It should be remembered that the hydro-wind power plant (Gorona del Viento) was created on the island of El Hierro in 2014, which is aimed to produce 100% renewable energy on the island of El Hierro. However, energy production still requires support through the burning of fossil fuels, covering the energy demand that Gorona del Viento does not produce. Additionally, the CO₂ emissions associated with the island's vehicles were determined, using the total annual consumption of petrol and diesel vehicles (data obtained from the Canary Islands Institute of Statistics).

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In 2020, electricity generation on the island of El Hierro consisted of 14.91 MW generated from the burning of fossil fuels (petroleum products) and 22.83 MW of energy produced from renewable sources, with the total energy production on El Hierro in 2020 being 37.74 MW (Gobierno de Canarias, 2021). The island of El Hierro has gone from producing 100 KW of renewable energy in 2004 to 22,933 KW in 2020, according to data from Gobierno de Canarias (2021). The evolution of emissions related to energy production on the island of El Hierro, based on fossil fuels, and the emissions saved by the presence of the Gorona del Viento project can be found in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Evolution of emissions (in Mg of CO₂) linked to energy production on the island of El Hierro for the period 2011–2020, as well as the emission savings produced by the Gorona del Viento Project.

Year/Emissions	Diesel fuel (Mg)	Emission factor (kg CO₂/unit)	MgCO₂	CO₂ avoided by Gorona del Viento (Mg CO₂)
2011	10,043	2.881	28,934	–
2012	10,162	2.881	29,277	–
2013	10,275	2.881	29,602	–
2014	9569	2.881	27,568	761.6
2015	10,780	2.881	31,057	6464.9
2016	6026	2.881	17,361	14,065.5
2017	5437	2.881	15,664	15,902.4
2018	4278	2.881	12,325	18,592.8
2019	4521	2.881	13,025	18,273.5
2020	6274	2.881	18,075	15,358.6

Source: Gobierno de Canarias (2021).

The evolution of emissions linked to vehicles on the island of El Hierro is shown in Table 3. For every litre of petrol consumed, a vehicle emits 2.35 kg of CO₂ on average, and for every litre of diesel, a vehicle emits about 2.64 kg of CO₂ (IDAE, 2022). In this study, it has been assumed that each vehicle travels an average of 50 km per day, 1 L of petrol covers an average of 9 km, and 1 L of diesel covers an average of 13 km.

TABLE 3. Emissions associated with petrol and diesel vehicles on the island of El Hierro, period 2011–2020.

Year/Emissions	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
Gasoline (n vehicles)	3731	3709	3656	3566	3531	3572	3703	3832	3987	4138
Emissions (MgCO₂ eq)	14,070.68	13,956.81	13,787.83	13,448.42	13,316.42	13,411.52	13,804.64	14,285.54	14,863.38	15,426.3
Diesel (n vehicles)	582	619	641	704	732	768	1139	865	895	940
Emissions (Mg CO₂ eq)	1689.26	1778.78	1896.05	2082.40	2165.22	2251.31	3305.96	2510.68	2597.75	2728.36
Total (Mg CO₂ eq)	15,759.94	15,735.59	15,683.88	15,530.82	15,481.65	15,662.83	17,110.60	16,796.22	17,461.13	18,154.66

By 2050, the island is expected to be 100% powered by renewable energies, resulting in either zero or minimal greenhouse gas emissions from power generation released into the atmosphere (Frydrychowicz-Jastrzebska, 2018).

The carbon stock stored in the aboveground and belowground tree biomass of El Hierro forests reached 510,713 Mg C (1,872,614 Mg CO₂) in 2017. The annual carbon sequestration achieves 12,760 Mg C year⁻¹ (46,785 Mg CO₂ year⁻¹), which is around 2.7% of the stock. The increment obtained with this methodology is the gross annual growth, but it could be considered as net growth since there were no major forest disturbances (such as fires or tree cutting of more than 1 ha) in El Hierro forests in the last years.

Emission values linked to energy production on the island of El Hierro dropped from 30,000 Mg CO₂ per year, before Gorona del Viento was built, to values of 18,000 Mg CO₂ in 2021, after Gorona del Viento was built (Table 1). Vehicle-related emissions are approximately 16,400 Mg CO₂ for the period 2011–2020 (Table 2). For the year 2011, emissions linked to energy and vehicles which make up Scope 1 and 2 of the carbon footprint (Cruz-Pérez, Santamarta, Gamallo-Paz, et al., 2022; Cruz-Pérez, Santamarta, Rodríguez-Martín, et al., 2022) were around 45,000 Mg CO₂; for the year 2021, emissions were about 36,000 Mg CO₂. The annual value linked to carbon sequestration by the forests of El Hierro is 46,785 tonnes of CO₂. The emissions and sequestration values show that El Hierro was almost CO₂ neutral in the years preceding the Gorona del Viento project (2011–2015) (mean value for the period −1.86 Mg CO₂ year⁻¹). However, after the start of the renewable energy project, El Hierro was a carbon sink for every year of the period 2016–2021 (mean value −14.46 Mg CO₂ year⁻¹) (Table 4).

TABLE 4. CO₂ emissions, annual sequestration by forests and balance on the island of El Hierro for the period 2011–2020.

Year	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
Emissions (Mg CO₂ eq)	44,694	45,013	45,286	43,099	46,539	33,024	32,775	29,121	30,486	36,230
Forest sequestration (Mg CO₂ year⁻¹)	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785	46,785
Balance (Mg CO₂)	−2,09	−1,77	−1,50	−3,69	−0,25	−13,76	−14,01	−17,66	−16,30	−10,56

El Hierro's emissions could be even lower in the future by its trees if its forested area is not diminished by fires or other disturbances, if electricity production from renewables on the island continues to increase (Nuez et al., 2022) and if the transport target proposed in the Canary Islands Climate Action Strategy of eliminating emissions linked to road transport by 2040 is met (de Canarias, 2022).

With regard to transport, along with the limits set by the Canary Islands Strategy, the European Union's Fit for 55 package of measures aims to ensure that all vehicles registered from 2035 onwards are zero-emission (de las Heras, 2022).

Studies on mobility in the Canary Islands are gaining momentum, because of the importance of mobility for the local population and also for tourism. In recent studies carried out on the island of Tenerife, values were obtained for vehicle emissions of 543,375 Mg CO₂ for the year 2020 (Cruz-Pérez, Santamarta, Gamallo-Paz, et al., 2022; Cruz-Pérez, Santamarta, Rodríguez-Martín, et al., 2022), showing an important comparison between a capital island and a smaller island such as El Hierro. In addition, more and more research is being carried out regarding the importance of electric vehicles on smaller islands and their potential to reduce CO₂ emissions (Ramirez-Diaz et al., 2016). This would need to be accompanied by an increase in the production of renewable energies, as well as the willingness of users to invest in electric vehicles (Ramos-Real et al., 2018).

4 CONCLUSIONS

The aim of this study was to assess the amount of carbon sequestration contributed by the forest stands on the island of El Hierro. El Hierro was chosen for its stability, because of the absence of fires or other forest disturbances on the island in the last decade and because it is considered a biosphere reserve, where new construction and any type of anthropic activity on the island are very controlled. It is also the island with the smallest fleet of vehicles in the Canary archipelago and the only island with powerful renewable energy production, through Gorona del Viento. There is also a positive trend towards a reduction in emissions, and the new policies implemented in the Canary Islands seek a significant investment in renewable energies and a change in the type of land vehicles used by the year 2040.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was partially supported by the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under grant agreement 101037424, project ARSINOE (climate-resilient regions through systemic solutions and innovations).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Open Research

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, J.C.S., upon reasonable request.

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Volume40, Issue2

April 2024

e13042

Carbon neutrality of an island with 100% renewable energy production and forest as carbon sinks: El Hierro (Canary Islands) a pilot for Europe

Abstract

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Study area

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

Open Research

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

REFERENCES

Figures

References

Information

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Carbon neutrality of an island with 100% renewable energy production and forest as carbon sinks: El Hierro (Canary Islands) a pilot for Europe

Abstract

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Study area

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

Open Research

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

REFERENCES

Figures

References

Related

Information